Equal Rights and Opportunity in the Labor Force
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Equal Opportunity and Careerism
Despite increases in women's labor participation rates, women continued to be excluded from higher status, better paying jobs. There was still a distinct separation between what were considered women's jobs and men's jobs, and also between women's and men's salaries.
From the 1890s to about the 1900s, 42% of men were employed in agricultural occupations and 38% in manufacturing occupations. Women, on the other hand, were employed at a high rate in in service sector jobs and in professions such as teaching and nursing, which were regarded as extensions of the domestic sphere. Only 19% of women participating in agricultural occupations.[1]
Distribution of Men and Women by Major Occupation, 1890/1900 [2] |
||
Occupation |
Men (%) |
Women (%) |
Professional |
10.2 |
9.6 |
Clerical |
2.8 |
4.0 |
Sales |
4.6 |
4.3 |
Service |
3.1 |
35.5 |
Manufacturing |
37.6 |
27.7 |
Agricultural |
41.7 |
19.0 |
Total employed |
100.0 |
100.0 |
Even now in the 21st century, there are distinct occupational divides between men and women. Women are disproportionately represented in administrative support and service occupations. Administrative occupations include secretaries, administrative assistants, file clerks, and bookkeepers. Service occupations include jobs such as child care workers, maids, hairdressers, and waitresses. In 2003, 42.6% of all women workers fell in these two categories while only 19.3% of men did.[2] Men were dominant in traditionally "blue collar" occupations such as construction, maintenance, and transportation. 27% of men worked in these types of occupations while only 2.6% of women did.
Distribution of Men and Women by Major Occupation, 2003 [3] |
||
Occupation |
Men (%) |
Women (%) |
Management, business, and financial operations occupations |
15.7 |
13.0 |
Professional and related occupations |
16.6 |
24.5 |
Service occupations |
12.9 |
19.6 |
Sales and related occupation |
11.1 |
12.1 |
Office and administrative support occupations |
6.4 |
23.0 |
Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations |
1.1 |
0.4 |
Construction and extraction occupations |
10.8 |
0.3 |
Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations |
6.6 |
0.3 |
Production occupations |
9.1 |
4.7 |
Transportation and material moving occupations |
9.6 |
2.0 |
Total employed |
100.0 |
100.0 |
While women were more likely than men to hold professional and related occupations (24.5% to men's 16.6%), significant earnings disparities persisted. In 2003, women with 4 or more years of college education made just 65.7% of what men did. While this was a significant improvement on the 54.6% in 1974, women are still experiencing sex-typing in employment as well as sexual discrimination on the job.[4]
Female-to-Male Ratios of Mean Earnings by Education for Workers 18 Years and Older, 1974 and 2003 [5] |
||
Education |
1974 |
2003 |
High School: |
|
|
1-3 years |
55.1 |
73.6 |
4 years |
57.5 |
72.9 |
College: |
|
|
1-3 years |
57.0 |
71.0 |
4 or more years |
54.6 |
65.7 |
As further illustrated by the graph below, although the gender earning gap has narrowed over time, women continue to earn less than their male counterparts for all age groups described below.
Female-to-Male Ratios of Mean Earnings for Full-Time, Year-Round Workers by Age, 1970-2003 [6] |
|||||
Age |
1970 |
1980 |
1990 |
2000 |
2003 |
25-34 |
64.9 |
68.5 |
76.9 |
74.4 |
85.4 |
35-44 |
53.9 |
55.3 |
64.4 |
66.1 |
69.4 |
45-54 |
56.3 |
52.0 |
58.2 |
60.4 |
65.8 |
55-64 |
60.3 |
54.9 |
57.1 |
53.6 |
60.0 |
Sexual Discrimination
Whether through the sex-typing or wage disparities, sexual discrimination remains a significant impediment in efforts to promote equal rights and opportunities for women in the labor market. Sexual discrimination in the labor market exists when two equally qualified individuals are treated differently on the basis of gender. Such discrimination was made unlawful by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1963, which is described in more detail on the Fighting Sexual Discrimination page. Title VII also prohibits sexual harassment, which can include unwelcome sexual advances, requesting sexual favors, and any behavior of a sexual nature that creates a hostile working environment.
Other sexual discrimination legislation includes:
Pregnancy Discrimination Act: A 1978 amendment to Title VII; this act prohibits discrimination based on pregnancy, birth, or related medical conditions. The act protects employees' rights in regards to hiring, pregnancy and maternity leave, and health insurance. In the 2006 fiscal year, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) resolved 4,629 of a total of 4,901 complaints received regarding pregnancy discrimination, and recovered $10.4 million for those parties filing complaints [7].
Equal Pay Act of 1963: This act requires men and women receive equal pay for equal work within the same establishment. Equal work does not mean that the man and woman's job must be identical, but they do have to be "substantially equal".
For ways to report sexual discrimination, refer to the "Sexual Discrimination" section of the Additional Resources page.
References
[1] [2] Blau, Francine D., Marianne A. Ferber, and Anne E. Winkler. The Economics of Women, Men, and Work. 5th ed. Upper Saddle Riber, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006. 29.
[3] Ibid., 137.
[4][5] Ibid., 151.
[6] Ibid., 149.
[7] "Sexual Harassment," U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 19 May 2007 <http://www.eeoc.gov/types/sexual_harassment.html>.
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